Earlier in my response, entitled “The Critical
Necessary of Literary Studies”, I mentioned that:
----------------------------------------
Horace in
“Art of Poetry” looks so supportive necessity of poetry through a variety of
rhetorical words such as
“All mortal things shall perish; still
less shall the currency and charm of words always endure. Many words that have
lapsed in use will be reborn, and may now in high repute will die, if custom
wills it, within whose power lie the judgement, rule, and standard of speech.” (in “Art of Poetry”, p. 80)
Because of
the arbitrary nature of language has words that can continue to grow and
develop. However, Horace emphasizes
“Neither proper words nor lucid order
will be lacking to the writer who chooses a subject within his powers.” (in “Art of Poetry”, p.79)
Starting seen
that in writing too, there can be social inequalities because each person has
the habit to write, but the writing that they make should be in accordance with
their level / degree of social and experiences.
It seems
intended to avoid mistakes that occur when a writer tries to avoid monotony in
his work in a manner that does not insert his usual part, or by inserting the
section is completely foreign to him (possibly just by inserting his story, or
experimenting with an experience that he himself had never experienced it).
When something like that happens, there is the possibility of emotion as well
as information about the things that he wanted to convey to his audience could
not be delivered because the audience failed or was misrepresented so that the
emotions were not as it should be.
It is also
common to the mimetic. Many writers are forced to imitate a figure, but
ultimately failed when the audience realizes that what it was being done only
‘imitate the real action.’ The point of urbanity is “…the ideal of poetic style is to mould familiar material with such
skill that anyone might hope to achieve the same feat” in “Art of Poetry”,
p.82)
When orthodoxy
codifies unorthodox, just as in Schole’s English Apparatus, unorthodox may
become worse when new information or new events require adaptation and
adjustment. As a result, the letters are mostly located in the stronghold of
unorthodox undergoing some sort of clash due to their initial belief that
suddenly affected by the codes of the orthodox. This will further problematize
our understanding of the place of literature in everyday socio-cultural
activities.
Especially,
if orthodoxy can codify unorthodoxy as in the following quote
“Orthodoxy replies by codifying an
orthodox behavior, setting aside times
and places for approved Saturnalias, designating certain attire as the jester’s
special clothing, and telling poets they have a “license” to be odd” (in “The English Apparatus”, p.2)
I thought the
point of “telling poets they have a" license "to be odd"
is a threat or at least a warning that with the influence of the Orthodox in
this manner does not remove the creativity of poets but thus blurring the creativity
itself.
One of the
aspects that could be affected is the genre. As an element that formed from the
composition of the various codes, genres must be able to unite the diverse
similar code into a masterpiece. This will be difficult if the codes are
popping up in a work/writing is a mixture of two camps-orthodox and unorthodox.
On the one
hand, the unorthodox want codes are retained, but on the other hand, the
orthodox also sets its own codification on the same paper Finally, both codes
will eventually bump into and out of sync so that when
“Orthodoxy replies by codifying an orthodox behavior, setting aside times and places for approved
Saturnalias, designating certain attire as the jester’s special clothing, and
telling poets they have a “license” to be odd” (in “The English Apparatus”,
p.1-2)
means that it might further problematize our understanding of the place
of literature in everyday socio-cultural activities.
Through some
comparison between the literature of various sciences such as mathematics,
psychology, biology and physics, I often see Frye defend literature or Linguistics in “The Function of Criticism in
Our Present Time” because as one of the fields of science, literature has a
trait that is not absolute as an exact science. Linguistics or literature in
this regard is very likely to be included in the critical review. However,
that's what so troubled Indonesian in our contemporary social and economic
discourse.
In Indonesia,
apparently questioning, argumentative, and/or denied a variety of general
theory which is already rooted in society and is believed to be the right is a statement that could be
considered taboo and not allowed to criticize such a theory publicly. This is a
problem because if everyone who studies the cultural studies can criticize
various writing/opinion/theory using a variety of reference then the results
will be considered subjective.
The arbitrary
nature of language, too, which then makes the English studies and
cultural/literary studies in Indonesia became more complicated, as stated by
Scholes
“The reason for this is that research
is ancillary to criticism, but the critic to whom the researcher should entrust
his materials hardly exist”
(in The English Apparatus, p.39)
Meanwhile, in
"The Resistance to Theory", De Man explained about the truth
(warnheit) that can be used as a tool for pursing warheit became a foregone
conclusion. But, as in the excerpt
“The local manifestations of this
resistance are themselves systematic enough to warrant one’s interest” (in “The Resistance to Theory”,
p.1320)
During the
convergence process is very likely to arise Warheit resistance to theory, if
it's not in line with the method.
When this
happens, resistance to theory could
arise due to a variety of arguments and references used to warrant one's
interest, pointing out things like the following
“It upsets roots ideologies by
revealing the mechanics of their workings; it goes against a powerful
philosophical tradition of which aesthetics is the most prominent part; it
upsets the established canon of literary works and blurs the borderlines
between literary and non-literary discourse.” (in “The Resistance to Theory”,
p.1322)
On the other
hand, Schole in “The English Apparatus” seemed to support the resistance of
theory through this citation:
“In an age of manipulation, when our
students are in dire need of critical strength to resist the continuing
assaults of all the media, the worst thing we can do is to foster in them an
attitude of reverence before texts” (in “The English Apparatus”, p.16)
the rest of
the reverential attitude, Scholes
found that
“…what is needed is a judicious
attitude: scrupulous to understand, alert to probe for blind spots and hidden
agendas, and, finally, critical, questioning, skeptical.” (in “The English Apparatus”, p.16)
Thus, I
conclude that literary studies, have an important role in our society as a
human being, considering we are all inseparable from literary studies and
language proficiency becomes important because it includes not only linguistic
but also can sharpen our logic, teach us to be skeptical, and prevent the habit
of "taking for grantedness". Literary studies can also increase our
sensitivity to the conditions surrounding and among other societies.
---------------------------------------------------
Actually, although I would argue that the language
has an important role in every aspect of human life, when I wrote that, I still
have a question about “if everyone has a different opinion, If every person has
a different opinion, then which is the most acceptable, or at least the closest
opinion of what is regarded as true?”
But the question seems to be answered through an
understanding of the ideology expressed by Althusser in Belsey's
"Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text" that
“Within the existence of ideology it appears
”obvious” that people are autonomous individuals, possessed of subjectivity or
consciousness which is the source of their beliefs and actions. That people are
unique, distinguishable, irreplaceable identities is “the elementary
ideological effect.(ibid., p.160)” (in Belsey’s
Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text, p. 356)
previously, also said that “Ideology has no creators in that sense, since it exists necessarily.”
(in Belsey’s “Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”, p. 356).
If the ideology called "has no creators" then how could nearly every
inhabitant of the world today know even stated different ideologies that
belongs to each of them?
Althusser refers to Marx's opinion regarding
ideology, argued that the definition of Ideology is
“not
the system of the real relations which govern the existence of individuals, but
the imaginary relation of those individuals to the real relations in which they
live” (Althusser 1971, p.155 in Belsey’s “Constructing
the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”,
p.355)
Above mentioned that ideology has a relationship
with human life either in real as well as imaginary. This happens because
humans are maintaining relationships between each other and that they gain an
understanding of the various norms that they must be adhered to and to live
within the norms themselves eventually they can conclude what is believed by
them as something that must be adhered to in living their life. However, the
relationship between ideology and human life can also be said to be imaginary
because by observing the surrounding conditions, they can understand what they
should think and behave; It will all be able to form their respective
ideologies.
“It
is important to stress, of course, that ideology is in no sense a set of
deliberate distortions foisted upon a helpless working class by a corrupt and
cynical bourgeoisie (or upon victimized women by violent and power hungry men).
(in Belsey’s
“Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”, p.356)
It seems that this phenomenon occurs in the work of
feminism. With so many pressures and justifications issued by male writers, as
revealed by GilbertGubar in “The madwoman in the attic” where some fictional
women have roles that are vague or even had no role at all.
The issue of
representation that previously I discussed the “Political Facts Behind Its
Appearance” Also seemed to be still related to the ideological issue.
(The following discussion)
-----------------------
It would be
very difficult for me to determine whether the critical study and literary text
can serve to support each other or even both would be contradictory because as
in the previous draft response Critical study not only can be used to support
the literary text, it can also be used also as a tool to refute a statement
contained in a literary text depends on who is doing that.
If he has an
opinion that is in line with that expressed by the owner of the text or if that
person is a "fan" of the owner of the text, then the results of the
critical text of the study will reach an agreement on the issue that is
discussed as a topic of discussion. But, if that was otherwise, then the
results of a critical study of the text will have a disagreement and instead of
reaching an agreement on the issue being discussed, it will only add to the
list of questions for the topic being discussed.
One example
is the patriarchal representation submitted by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar
in essays entitled “The madwoman in the attic”, they mostly discuss the
difference of power between men and women through solving some of the figures
that used as the symbol of women in several works such as Aurora in the
character of Elizabeth Barret Browning's "Aurora Leigh" who looks at
her mother as "a Ghost, fiends, and
angel, fairy, sprite, and witch”.
Moreover, in
the same essay, Gilbert and Gubar also saw the development of a symbol such as
“Virgin Mary” in women during the middle ages and the “angel in the house” for
women in the Nineteenth Century.
Interestingly,
although women often symbolized by a figure who has angelic qualities and as if
they play an important role, but in fact quite the contrary, women are not even
allowed to have a role that can stand alone.
As it happens
with the notables Honoria in Patmore's "The angel in the house"
“No happier post than this I ask,
To live her laureate all my life.
On wings of love uplifted free,
And by her gentleness made great,
I’ll teach how noble man should be
To match with such a lovely mate.”
(In “Madwoman in the Attic, p. 815)
which implies
that her virtue makes her man 'great'.
An anxiety
which then appears and the big question in this essay is if the woman is
symbolized as a sacred figure who has angelic nature, then why the nature of
existing angelic figures among women in the paper written by a male author thus
turning instead suppress and opposing the existence of the female character
itself?
Even the
angelic properties commonly inserted by the author as a soul for the female
character in his work, if you take more precisely those qualities were even
transformed into a monstrous female figure because it's often the nature of the
angelic will end up as a figure who is depressed because of its nature it should
be used for serving, satisfying, and fulfilling cravings/desires of male
character.
Meanwhile, if
the heroine was created to finally meet all the desires/wishes of male
character, would not that was the angelic nature of their lives will be
transformed into one of the 7 deadly sins? And if not so, then women will be
seen as a monstrous figure?
This is
thought to be fictional political supporters of patriarchy as described in
Simone's Beauvoir's thesis that:
“Woman has been made to represent all
of man’s ambivalent feelings about his inability to control his own physical
existence, his own birth and death. As the Other, woman comes to represent the
contingency of life, life that is made to be destroyed.” (in “Madwoman in the Attic”
p.822-823)
Besides, Beauvoir
also argues that
“It is the horror of his own carnal
contingence,…which [man] projects upon [woman]” (in “Madwoman in the Attic” p.823)
Gilbert and
Gubar also concluded that the sentimental fiction of the woman could be
politically influenced by patriarchy as 'Lilith' in the Biblical story that was
originally thought that men and women have equal roles, he then lied to Adam.
From there, Lilith is the first wife of Adam chose patriarchal marriage as
punishment for his actions.
Gilbert Gubar
interpret figure Lilith as a reflection of how difficult for a woman to have a
role for herself,
“cursed both because she is a
character who “got away” and because she dared to usurp the essentially
literary authority implied by the act of naming, Lilith is locked into
vengeance (child killing)which can only bring her more suffering (the killing
of her own children).”
(in “Madwoman in the Attic” p.823)
Just as the
same with female authorship authority problems in real life women writers.
In addition,
as quoted from Gilbert Gubar's essay, Anne Finch-a literary woman- capture the
implicit message of the story of Lilith is that:
“A life of feminine submission, of
“contemplative purity,” is a life of silence, a life that has no pen and no story, while a life of female rebellion,
of “significant action,” is a life that must be silenced, a life whose
monstrous pen tells a terrible story.”
(in “Madwoman in the Attic” p.824).
In addition,
an example of a very unique representation can also be seen on Gayatri
Chakravorty Spivak's "Three women's Texts" that attempted to put
forward the argument that the critical analyses in psychoanalytical,
economical, and literary sphere intersect through projection.
Spivak states
that “The role of literature in the
production of cultural representation should not ignored' (in “Three
Women’s Texts” p.838), especially in
the 19th century because it was arguably the golden age of English literature.
The success of English literature in this century is inseparable from the
success of the imperial government that works well in this century has not
completely escape the influence of imperialism. Also the literary works
produced in the 19th century were finally able to give birth to 'the third world' ('Worlding' the
'Third
World').
Somewhat
different from Gilbert Gubar that discusses feminism in general, Spivak
discusses feminist individualism started from Jane Eyre's unique imagination
(in "Three women's Texts" p. 840) is shown when she turned her home
with the uncommon architectural design— because the design she created is not
recommended in any architectural book. Jane's unique imagination can be
categorized as a psychological issue, while the displacement of the
counter-class family became a family-in-law's (in "Three women's
Texts" p. 841) can be categorized as an economic issue because such
removals usually have something to do with material/financial needs. Then,
after a psychological and economic problems contained in the earlier story,
Jane Eyre as revived in Jean Rhys's "Wide Sargasso Sea" as Bertha
Mason.
But I also
found similarities between Gilbert Gubar with Spivak that when Christophine
figure-a black native-Wide Sargasso Sea in the novel who have a desire to be
able to have a character
by rebelling and saying
“No chain gang, no tread machine, no
dark jail either. This is free country and I am
free woman.”
(in “Wide
Sargasso Sea”, p.131)
to the guy
who tease her. But, similar to what happened to Lilith, due to her tangentially
to this narrative,
“No perspective critical of
imperialism can turn the Other into a self, because the project of imperialism
has always already historically refracted what might have been the absolutely
Other into domesticated Other that
consolidates the imperialist self.” (in
“Three Women’s Texts” 846)
Different
from both the essay discussed earlier, to prove that in a work of literature,
there can be a political imperialism representation United Kingdom, Edward Said
first gives an overview of the history of European colonialism. Said’s way in
the opening of this essay is quite confusing because in the beginning, instead
of looking like someone who would convey literary criticism, Said it looks like
a war veteran who wants to pass on the story of his experience in the colonial
era to the reader.
But there is
an important point in the preamble to explain the direction of this essay:
“Said drew on the work of
structuralist historian Michael Focault in his examination of how Western
academic described non-Western countries that were in the process of being
colonized by Western Europe”
(in “Jane Austen and Empire” p.1112)
Said
considered that the works of Wordsworth, Austen, and Coleridge before 1857
which eventually led to the establishment of British government policy in India
is a spatial impact (in terms of only non-Western countries only) on an error
in the interpretation of literary works.
By heeding
Raymond William's argument on "The Country and the City" which is
related to "the interplay between
rural and urban places in England" (in "Jane Austen and the
Empire" p. 1113)
and
“From at last the mid-nineteenth
century, and with important instances earlier, there was this larger context
[the relationship between England and the colonies, whose effects on the
English Imagination “have gone deeper than can easily be traced”] within which
every idea and every image was consciously and unconsciously affected.” (in “Jane Austen and Empire” p.1114)
Said reveal
the relationship between the text and the development of British imperialism
through the published date and year and the points to be emphasized by the
author.
To express
his own opinion about the ideological and moral Affirmation, Said suggests that
there is a relationship between literary works by British Imperialism in “Mansfield
Park” (1814) by Jane Austen is to declare:
“To earn the right to Mansfield Park
you must first leave home as a kind of indentured servant or, to put the case
in extreme terms, as a kind of
transported commodity…but then you have the promise of future wealth.”(in “Jane Austen and Empire” p.1118)
I got to
thinking that 'Mansfield Park' mentioned here is another manifestation of the
'plantation' which also has a characteristic more or less the same as it was;
most people are used as native black slaves and /or treated as a commodity by
the parties of other countries that have more power than them, the native.
Regardless of
the outcome and somehow, represent a text can be classified as a political act
because:
- If we just see or hear a text but do not know the author of the text properly, I think it would be very difficult to be 100% right in represents the text.
- In addition, represents a text can also be referred to as a "political act" because although it is equipped with various reference sources, back again on the statement that the language has properties which arbitrary; a text can be interpreted in a variety of by everyone without exception. However, the results will depend on the privilege, experience, knowledge, as well as those who represent the views of representing topic and/or alignments represent the people against the author of the text to be represented.
- In this case it seems like no one can guarantee that the results of the activities related to representation of a work — in this case the writings are objective.
Each
assessment of a work will remain valid despite of the many people who try to
represent a masterpiece, some people could have been pro-cons of a text while
the rest of the work is the same as the results will depend on the privilege,
experience, knowledge, as well as those who represent the views of the
represented topic and/or alignments represent the people against the author of
the text which have to be represented.
--------------------------------------
Representations are then present as an overview of
the subject from the viewpoint of others is arguably processed their own
ideology on the subject that he saw. The issue that got me interested in the
previous response “Political Facts Behind Its Appearance” concerning the representation
of women created by male authors. There, a woman was presented as someone who
not only has a vague role, but also women are manifested as a monstrous figure.
Why does this happen for quite a long time? (At least until now, There may
still be people who think that women are indeed worthy of being represented in
a way like that, or even wonder why this thing could drag on)
Again referring to Althusser in Belsey’s
“Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text” ideology within an
individual does not appear casually, ideology appears as formed or deliberately
shaped by ISAs (Ideological State Apparatus) which
“prepares
children to act consistently with the values of society by inculcating in them
the dominant version of appropriate behavior as well as history, social
studies, and of course, literature” (in Belsey’s “Constructing
the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”, p.356)
Also further explained that
“Among
the allies of the educational ISA are the family, the law, the media, and the
arts, all helping to represent and reproduce the myths and beliefs necessary to
enable people to work without the existing social formation.” (in Belsey’s
“Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”, p.356)
If so, it means that a person's ideology will not be
completely separated from "referral/dictation" that directly or
indirectly established or transmitted by their environment. According to
Saussure, this seems problematic because if the formation of ideology still
arguably depends on the environment that directs it, then the language has
become so important
“As
well as being a system of signs related among themselves, language incarnates
meaning in forl of the series of positions it offers for the subject from which
to grasp itself and its relations with the real.” (Nowell-Smith 1976, p.26 in
Belsey’s “Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text”, p.358)
When you don't see the language and the sign used, the
subject (individual) may misrecognize
themselves. Someone who does not understand the language can assume that what
is said by people around him/her is something that should he/she apply as
ideology, or he/she will accept whatever people say about them, so the
misrepresentation originating from a failure in understanding their own
ideology will take root and continue to be used as is the case in which a
female character is represented as a monstrous figure and a minor in some
literature works.
The interesting thing for me is, I often
find there are people who dare to declare that its ideology will never change. Quite contrary
to the concept of ideology in Belsey’s essay or less saying that ideology
apparently always changing in accordance with the stages/phases of life that
has been passed by the subject. An ideology that able to eventually change
seems to fit with the fact that the language itself is arbitrary.
Saussure states that “language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore
comparable to a system of writing, the alphabet of deaf-mutes, symbolic rites,
polite formulas, military signals, etc.” (in Saussure’s “Course in General
Linguistics”, p.60)
What happens
to the subject and its ideology may be attributed to Saussure's opinion
concerning synchronic (Everything that relates to the static side of our
science) and diachronic (everything has to do with evolution).
Ideology-which I can understand from the sense of
Derrida and Belsey- is an identity that arises due to the form of sign
language, spoken or written language that provoke subjects to assess
themselves. In Derrida's essay (the title) is also obvious that ideology (which
he considers as the 'center') is part of the nature of the subject
(diachronic).
“Thus
it has always been thought that the center, which is by definition unique,
constituted that very thing within a
structure which while governing the structure escapes structurality” (in
Derrida’s “Structure Sign and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences”, p.1206)
Based on the above quotation, means the center,
which according to my understanding is the 'ideology' can still be changed by
decentering -a kind overturns understand that circulate in society- that the
center has always set the structure, when in fact the center does not control
the structure because the structure has its own center
“The
center is at the center of the totality, and yet, since the center does not
belong to the totality (is not part of the totality), the totality has its
center elsewhere.” (in Derrida’s “Structure Sign and Play in
the Discourse of the Human Sciences”, p.1206)
This can be done by reducing/deriving the signifier
in submitting the sign to thought and/or by putting into question the system in
which the preceding reduction functioned; first and foremost, the opposition
between the sensible and intelligible. By doing so, the structures that form
the ideology of the subject will also be changed and ultimately ideology will
continue to undergo change.
But if following Derrida who states that overall,
there is no so-called centers because each structure also has its own center,
means the subject here will never find their own center, but what they found
instead was a combination of structures formed by society, and the structure
formed by themselves. Does it mean if someone says he has an ideology, the fact
is that people has not obtained the ideology itself?
WORK
CITED
Arnold, Matthew.
2004.“The Function of Criticism in Our Present Time” in Critical Theory Since
Plato, Wordsworth
Belsey, Catherine.1994. “Constructing the Subject: Deconstructing the Text” in Contemporary Literary Criticism ed. Con Davis, Robert and Schleifer, Ronald. (1994). New York and London: Longman Publishing Group.
De Man, Paul. 1986. “The Resistance to Theory” in Theory and History of Literature, Volume 33. Minneapolis, United States: University of Minnesota Press.
Derrida, Jacques. 1966. “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences” in Critical
Theory Since Plato ed. Adams, Hazard and Searle, Leroy. (2004, 3rd edition; pg. 1206-1215). United States: Wadsworth Publishing.
Gilbert, Sandra and Gubar, Susan. 1979. “The Madwoman in the Attic” in Literary Theory: An Anthology ed. Rivkin, Julie and Ryan, Michael (2004, 2nd edition; pg. 812-825). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Horace. “Art of Poetry”. 2004. in Adams, Hazard and Searle, Leroy. Critical Theory since Plato (3rd edition). United States: Wadsworth Publishing.
Said, Edward. “Jane Austen and Empire” in Literary Theory: An Anthology ed. Rivkin, Julie and Ryan, Michael (2004, 2nd edition; pg. 1112-1125). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Saussure, Ferdinand De. 1916. “Course in General
Linguistic” in Literary Theory: An Anthology ed. Rivkin, Julie and
Ryan, Michael (2004, 2nd edition; pg. 59-71). United Kingdom: Blackwell
Publishing.
Scholes, Robert. 1986. “The English Apparatus” in Textual Power. Yale, United States: Yale University Press.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1986. “Three Women’s
Texts and a Critique of Imperialism” in Literary Theory: An Anthology
ed. Rivkin, Julie and Ryan, Michael (2004, 2nd edition; pg. 838-853). United
Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
